2 Music Manifestations Against the Brazilian Military Dictatorship

Introduction: Contextualizing the Dictatorial Period and its Musicians

From 1964 to 1985, a military dictatorship took over the Brazilian state as the country’s center of political power. With the justification of avoiding the “communist threat” represented by the leftist president Jânio Quadros, the military carried out a coup and placed Marshal Castello Branco as president instead. In the Brazilian military dictatorship, any form of resistance against the regime was considered subversive, repressing dissenters and making opposing the government extremely dangerous.

Nonetheless, the repression could not silence the bold voices of musicians from musical movements such as the Brazilian Popular Music (MPB) and Tropicalismo. Creative and groundbreaking artists such as Chico Buarque, Caetano Veloso, Gilberto Gil, and Elis Regina wrote and performed lyrics with hidden messages against the dictatorship to indirectly pass through the government’s censoring committees. This artistic expression played a crucial role in manifesting the voices of the Brazilian people, considering that the military forces brutally contained street protests.

In this paper, I will examine how the historical role of resistance through music during the Brazilian Military Dictatorship has and continues to shape society’s understanding of the power of art in challenging oppressive systems and initiating social and political change. I will analyze this topic by examining the political content in the lyrics, the political outcomes ignited by the musicians, and the distinct Brazilian sociocultural identity built by the resistance music of the dictatorial period.

Theoretical Framework: Situating Brazilian and Latin American Relations with Authoritarianism

Firstly, to understand the artistic reactions to the military dictatorship it is important to outline the characteristics of it. As conceptualized by Fernando Henrique Cardoso in the chapter On The Characterization of Authoritarian Regimes from Collier’s book The New Authoritarianism in Latin America, the Brazilian military regime can be classified as a bureaucratic-authoritarianism because it occurred in reaction against leftist movements and the policies served to guarantee the continued development of industrial capitalism. Furthermore, Cardoso argues that the degree of autonomy of civil society was even lower during the most repressive phases of the regime since there was control over mass media, a system of terror within society, and obstacles to the formation of public opinion.

In a scenario where expressing the population’s opinions and concerns was so limited, the artists became leaders of resistance and builders of cultural identity. As explored by Jasmine Ali in the paper “Warmikuna quñusqa kasun” or “Women, we are united”; Indigenous Feminist Rap Music as a Form of Resistance: “Activists are leaders who have been part of the collective resistance identity but seek to expand a project identity by challenging the entire structure of the dominant institution.” That means that more than engaging in resistance identity which is usually constructed by using materials inherited from history, activists have been reshaping new social structures through the cultural materials available to them, “building a new identity that redefines their position in society” (Castells). That was precisely what many musicians did during the Brazilian dictatorship: they used the country’s culture to assert their position in society and challenge the political structure of oppression. Following this analysis, we can conclude that the music artists of that time also took over the role of activists for sociopolitical change and for the construction of a popular identity in Brazil – going directly against a repressive regime that aimed to suppress artistic manifestations viewed as a menace.

In addition, before further understanding how Brazilian music worked as a form of resistance during the military dictatorship, one must comprehend why there is a need to use art for social denunciation in Latin America. As shown in the report Our Democracy by the United Nations Development Programme, even though Latin America is enjoying its longest period of democracy, the region is still the most unequal on the planet. Moreover, the report argues that the region’s greatest problems are inequality in power and in the exercise of citizens’ rights. This paper will show that art in Latin America has continuously been addressing sociopolitical issues because these issues still largely affect its population. In this context, it is valuable to notice how many social critiques represented in songs from the dictatorial period are still related to the current scenario of the region. One example of that is Chico Buarque’s song “Construção” [Construction], which brilliantly denounces socioeconomic inequalities in Brazil by describing a tragic day in the life of a construction worker.

Chico Buarque’s “Construção”

Moreover, it’s crucial to emphasize that Brazilian music during the dictatorship wasn’t the sole or initial movement in Latin America to express sociopolitical concerns through music. Jan Fairley’s exploration of La Nueva Canción Latinoamericana reveals that the Cuban nueva trova and the Chilean nueva canción similarly delved into themes associated with the political tensions in their respective countries, serving as a form of protest. In contemporary times, the Puerto Rican musical duo Calle 13 also contributes to building cultural identity while addressing themes such as social oppression, challenges in Latin American peripheries, and discrimination, as discussed by Ivan Bomfim in “NO PUEDES COMPRAR MI VIDA”: Calle 13, as representações do continente na narrativa musical de Latinoamérica e o ambíguo contexto porto-riquenho [‘NO PUEDES COMPRAR MI VIDA’: Calle 13, the Representations of the Continent in the Musical Narrative of Latin America and the Ambiguous Puerto Rican Context]. By examining these Latin American musical movements, one can identify common influences, roles, and themes, highlighting how art has historically served as a significant channel for resistance and criticism in the region. This persistence of themes and similarities underscores the enduring role of art in confronting social issues, even in periods of political democracy in Latin America. Furthermore, as mentioned in the newspaper article Art Is Fuelling the Protest Movements in Latin America, art continues to be used as an important component in political protests across the region. As an example, in 2019, hundreds of Brazilian indigenous women occupied President Jair Bolsonaro’s Ministry of Health to demand basic health and human services to their communities while peacefully singing and dancing inside the facilities (“Art is Fuelling”). The article also mentions examples of recent artistic protests in other Latin American countries such as Argentina, Puerto Rico, and Chile, highlighting how artistic expression is used as a tool to protest and fuel social movements across the whole region.

The Case: Movements, Lyrics, and Consequences

The Brazilian dictatorial government restricted any cultural manifestations that expressed messages contrary to the established order (Bernando). This attempt to suppress protest culture, however, proved unsuccessful in preventing the emergence and evolution of the identity-building movement known as Brazilian Popular Music (MPB). The “B” in MPB aimed to make clear that the compositions were rooted in Brazilian tradition, distinguishing the genre from international pop. According to Perrone, this differentiation could also represent an anti-regime position since commercial international pop music can be associated with a multi-national economic occupation of Brazil during the dictatorship regime or even with the penetration of the mass-culture industry of the time (Perrone). Instead, MPB aimed to represent a singular cultural Brazilian identity, igniting pride in the country despite the repressive and anti-culture military occupation.

Nonetheless, some artists believed that adopting a unique path of national-popular art could not embrace all their claims and express the society they aimed to represent (Nercolini). As a result, Tropicalismo – another pivotal music genre of that time – emerged, setting itself apart from MPB by embracing foreign musical trends, using foreign instruments, and infusing its music with a modern twist (Veloso and Dunn). This countercultural movement engaged in a form of creative “cannibalization,” blending national and international styles through ironic appropriation and recycling. The result was a collection of songs characterized by satirical, parodic, post-modern, and intricate styles and symbolisms. Caetano Veloso–one of the most prominent musicians of the movement–stated that Tropicalismo artists aimed to create an “aggressive nationalism” against the “defensive nationalism”, in other words, avoiding the conservatism of the nationalist politics of the time by having a critical and aggressive attitude (Veloso and Dunn). Additionally, Tropicalismo’s performances had a strong visual appeal, creating a mix of music, visual arts, scenography, clothing, and dance (Bernardo). This aesthetic aimed to instigate the audience’s interaction with the performance and captivate low-income sectors, suggesting that they were part of what was being represented (Bernardo).

Both movements, MPB and Tropicalismo, featured potent songs conveying impactful protest messages. As previously mentioned, musicians under the dictatorship expressed their discontent and frustration with the political regime through their lyrics. However, to navigate censorship committees, they had to adopt a subtler approach when conveying their political messages. This necessity led to the frequent use of intricate and highly figurative language (Bernardo). The song “Cálice” [Chalice] by Chico Buarque and Gilberto Gil is a great case for political analysis. In the most remarkable line “Pai, afasta de mim esse cálice” [Father, take this chalice away from me], “Pai” [Father] represents a holy figure but also the lack of autonomy of the individual through the presence of a father figure (Silva and Giesel). “Afasta” [take this away] referred to the resistance toward the dictatorship period (Silva and Giesel). Moreover, the word “cálice” [chalice] magnificently represents a homophone in Portuguese for chalice/shut up (Silva and Giesel). Thus, this whole line showcases the population’s refusal to accept the changes introduced by the regime and, at the same time, the brutal response that censorship represented.

Chico Buarque and Gilberto Gil’s “Cálice”

Elis Regina was another artist who performed many iconic songs during the dictatorial period, with one of the most notable being O Bêbado e a Equilibrista. The song, advocating for the country’s re-democratization, the freedom of political prisoners, and the return of exiled citizens, became a musical symbol for the population’s campaign for amnesty and democracy, gaining recognition as the Amnesty Anthem. According to journalist Anderson Falcão in the newspaper article O bêbado e a equilibrista: em 1979, Elis Regina deu voz ao Hino da Anistia [The Drunkard and the Tightrope Walker: In 1979, Elis Regina Gave Voice to the Amnesty Anthem], when Elis shared the song with Brazilian cartoonist Henfil, he realized that amnesty was on the horizon. Henfil called his brother, an exiled sociologist mentioned in the lyrics, declaring, “Now we have an anthem, and whoever has an anthem makes a revolution.” Additionally, Henfil stated that following the release of the song, political rallies that previously attracted 500 people began reuniting crowds of 5,000.

Elis Regina’s “O Bêbado e a Equilibrista”

Another important trend is that many of the artists suffered legal consequences such as imprisonment and exile, showcasing how art was able to create political agitation. Notably, Chico Buarque became one of the most targeted artists by the military forces, ultimately choosing exile in Europe (Bernardo). Furthermore, Caetano Veloso and Gilberto Gil spent two months in prison, four months in house arrest, and were then exiled for two and a half years in London. According to Perrone, “Their persecution demonstrated the regime’s generalized mistrust of popular music, regardless of its explicit political intentions, as a mobilizing force, as an instrument of resistance, or simply as an embodiment of difference” (Perrone).

Moreover, these exiles demonstrated the global influence of Brazilian protest musicians and how they helped to shape international diplomacy. Interestingly, Veloso’s and Gil’s exile worked as a tool of resistance while maintaining the possibility of dialogue and cultural exchanges between countries (Moretti). Traditionally, Brazil has broad and autonomous diplomacy, giving its Ministry of Foreign Affairs a certain space and autonomy even during the military dictatorship (Moretti). That way, by supporting exiled artists, the ministry took advantage of their success to promote cultural tourism to Brazil and shape the country’s foreign depiction (Moretti). This created a Brazilian external image that distanced itself from national representations, exhibiting the crucial role of the ministry in projecting and expanding cultural diplomacy through the musicians in exile (Moretti). This diplomatic stance, fueled by the exiled artists, served to value Brazilian cultural-political movements and promote them abroad.

Analysis: How Brazilian Protest Music Shaped a Distinct Sociocultural Identity and Created Political Mobilization            

During times of repression, asserting and constructing identity becomes even more crucial. This is due to the tendency to suppress artistic and cultural expressions representing diverse national identities, alongside efforts to manipulate a nation’s identity, turning it into an exclusionary form of nationalism. Such was the case during the Brazilian military dictatorship, in which the government aimed to appropriate national symbols and impose a xenophobic form of nationalism (Nercolini). This context further highlights how impactful and relevant the movements of MPB and Tropicalismo were: by embracing national tradition and addressing Brazilian society’s issues, these movements built a distinct and inclusive sociocultural identity to the country and expressed public claims, challenging a regime that was seeking to suppress cultural resistance and popular manifestation. In that manner, MPB and Tropicalismo showcase how music is a powerful tool for shaping a nation’s identity based on its population’s unique culture and sociopolitical claims, especially in periods of repression. This context connects to Ali’s idea that artists, similarly to activists, have been part of collective resistance by using culture to reshape and challenge dominant and oppressive societal structures. Nonetheless, the differences between the two movements also underscore how artistic resistance is diverse and how it allows for multiple forms of expression. Hence, it can appeal to and impact multiple and greater audiences while still conveying its political message.

Moreover, the songs from that era not only contributed to the construction of a national identity but also fostered a collective sense within the population. These musical expressions were performed in the Festivals of MPB, transcending mere artistic events and evolving into public forums where the Brazilian people gathered to discuss and contemplate the country’s political landscape, sparking meaningful dialogues among everyday citizens. These political conversations fostered by art were even more relevant considering that, as Cardoso mentioned, the repression and control over mass media was so intense that it worked as an obstacle to the formation of public opinion. That way, by inspiring sociopolitical discussions in artistic gatherings, the musical movements performed an important role in the formation of public opinion and in raising awareness of the country’s issues among its citizens. Additionally, these festivals served as a release valve in response to the suffocating effects of the military’s suppression of free speech. In this way, the festivals assumed a role beyond the musical realm, creating emotional connections among the public (Perrone). This communal development of shared identity empowered frustrated Brazilians living under the dictatorship, providing a channel through music to articulate strong emotions and social dilemmas. Thus, the resistance and denunciation of the lyrics, expressed in collective settings, created a sense of agency and solidarity, mobilizing individuals to address their frustrations and engage in political discussions.

Along similar lines, it is important to note that, more than simply criticizing the regime, the works of these musicians contributed to generating actual political changes and to the political opening that happened in the last years of the dictatorship. As Napolitano mentioned, “MPB was part of the soundtrack of the Amnesty Campaign”  fueling the popular desire for freedom and pressuring the political powers to do so (Napolitano). Further, when examining the influence of songs like “O Bêbado e a Equilibrista” [The Drunk and the Tightrope Walker] and observing how it drew larger crowds to political rallies, it becomes evident that the songs of the dictatorial times’ ability to evoke a feeling of agency within the population contributed to an increased political engagement among the people. As Contier mentions, the protest songs were considered capable of awakening in Brazilians a sense of heroism to fight for the popular liberation of their nation (Contier). That way, music inspired the emergence of a new generation that felt capable of creating social change and a more democratic country (Amorim). Moreover, the musicians fueled the expansion of Brazilian cultural diplomacy by reinventing the country’s image abroad and enriching the national artistic realm. As Nercolini states, MPB has evolved into one aspect deeply associated with the idea of “Brazilianness” and “national pride”, shaping national and external recognition of the Brazilian image (Nercolini).

Furthermore, it is important to note that many of the musicians from the dictatorial period and their songs are still relevant in the Brazilian political scenario. For example, in 2020, nearly 50 years after its release, Chico Buarque’s protest song “Apesar de Você” [In Spite of You] resonated with the population during protests against the then-Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro, known for his conservative stance and open support for the military dictatorship (Nuzzi). Chico himself also engaged in public protests in favor of the COVID-19 vaccine and against Bolsonaro’s anti-vax position, being surrounded by fans (‘Chico Buarque Protesta’). Caetano Veloso is another artist who remains engaged in political and social causes, having even led a protest against Jair Bolsonaro’s environmental policy and its negative impacts on indigenous people (“Caetano Veloso Protesta”). Moreover, after performing “Cálice” this year, Maria Bethânia – another iconic MPB singer – celebrated on stage the decision of the Superior Electoral Court (TSE) to make Bolsonaro ineligible for the next 8 years (“In Show In Portugal”). Through these examples, it becomes clear that the musicians from the military regime period are still influential figures associated with sociopolitical engagement. Moreover, it is evident that their songs and cultural impact have a long-lasting influence on the Brazilian audience and in challenging political oppression. This reality also supports the enduring role of art in denouncing and addressing sociopolitical dilemmas, as expressed in the newspaper article Art Is Fuelling the Protest Movements in Latin America. It highlights how artistic expression is still used as an important tool to protest and fuel social movements in Latin America.

Conclusion           

The resistance movement’s manifestation through music during the Brazilian military dictatorship shaped a collective understanding of the power of art in challenging oppressive systems. By protesting the regime through embracing popular claims, music was able to build a unique cultural identity that revolutionized the concept of “Brazilianness” nationally and internationally. Moreover, the artistic resistance developed in Brazilians a sense of agency and a collective identification that inspired political dialogue and engagement. That way, musicians embodied the role of activists during the dictatorship, and their art empowered people to fight for a more democratic and just nation.

Up to this day, many of the musicians of the dictatorial time continue engaging in sociopolitical manifestations, and their lyrics are still used to express Brazilian identity and popular claims. The power that this art held and its long-lasting effects on Brazilian society prove that, even without taking what might be considered direct political action, art is capable of largely shaping and changing a political scenario and dismantling repressive forces. Also, similarities between Brazilian and other Latin American artistic movements of protest throughout history highlight how art is a perpetual channel for resistance in the region.

The military dictatorship left unforgettable wounds in the history of Brazil; however, the music of that time left an even more significant impact on Brazilian culture. The brilliant, nuanced, and powerful lyrics from the dictatorial times will continue to resonate among Brazilians, inspire them to feel proud of their nation, and remind them of how precious our democracy is. I would like to end this essay with a sentence by the psychoanalyst and educator Rubem Alves, found in Bernardo’s article, that made me proud of my culture despite all the historical attempts to erase it: “That is what was really beautiful: that from so many blows, from so much pain, songs emerged, a flower sprouted”.

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